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Dystopian Themes and Urban Powerlessness in X
The following essay was written by Julia Holz (site: http://rokujo.dreamhost.com)
And is reprinted here with her permission.
Comics, or manga, are an integral part of Japanese literary life. According to Matt Thorn,
"manga . . . make up forty percent of all publications in Japan." This comes to about fifteen
manga books or magazines sold to each person in Japan per year (MacWilliams 110). Manga,
particularly popular series such as X, are read to fulfill a need. It is not unreasonable to suggest
that titles, marketed to very focused demographics, in some way reflect the culture of their
readers. In the view of Sharon Kinsella, "In any modern society, culture is the sphere to which
people turn to fulfill spiritual, emotional, intellectual and sexual needs and desires which are not
met within the fabric of their lives at work, at school, at home" (252). This paper will look at the
ways in which the manga series X (released in America as X/1999) reflects ideas in current
Japanese society, specifically, the perceived powerlessness of the everyday person to change the
institutions of society.
The post-war Japanese comics genre is not an offshoot of American comics, as might be
expected. It evolved independently, beginning in the forties with the work of Osamu Tezuka,
author of Mighty Atom and Jungle emperor, who is considered the "god" of manga. Influenced
by European film, he "incorporated cinematic techniques in his manga, using close-ups, wild
angles, pseudo slow-motion, and dozens of other tricks that had never been used in this medium
before" (Thorn). He is also considered the father of shoujo manga, girls' comics, although the
true greats in the field were the "49ers," a group of female artists and authors who debuted in the
sixties (Thorn).
X is a relatively new series, first published in 1992. It does not yet have a place in the
pantheon of classic manga series such as Otomo Katsuhiro's Akira or the works of Leiji
Matsumodo. X is a shoujo manga, or girls' comic, but it is unique in its ability to cross genre
lines. Fujimoto Yukari writes, "the primary characteristic of girls' comics in Japan is that the
genre reflects the mood and changing values of the times." The art style of X as well as the
emphasis on "feelings, moods, relationships, character, and situations" (Thorn) places it squarely
in the realm of shoujo manga. However, it could easily be mistaken for a shounen manga, boys'
comic. X is remarkable within the shoujo genre because while certainly targeted to a female
reading audience it is sometimes called a "battle manga" because of the high level of graphic
violence and emphasis on fighting.
CLAMP, the authors of X, are famous for experimentation in the creation of their manga.
Although known best for their shoujo manga, in their most recent releases CLAMP has published
two entirely shounen series, Angelic Layer and Chobits. CLAMP began in the shoujo genre as a
twelve-member doujinshi circle (Amarythia), a group that creates and publishes amateur comics
usually based on professionally published manga. Even in their amateur days CLAMP was
known for their dramatic experimentation with style, form, and story. By the time their first
professional work, Seiden RG Veda, was printed in Wings Comics in 1990, CLAMP had shed
most of its members, leaving the four members it has today (RG Veda 195). X was published two
years later -- CLAMP's first foray into the world of dystopian literature.
The plot of X is at its heart about Armageddon. The year is 1999 and the final battle to
decide the fate of humanity is being fought in Tokyo. The seven Dragons of Heaven fight to
preserve humanity while the seven Dragons of Earth fight to destroy humanity, thus saving the
planet from impending ecological disaster. Kekkai, protective spiritual barriers, exist all over the
world and if they are destroyed human civilization will be decimated by earthquakes. The
keystone of the world network of kekkai is Tokyo; if the kekkai in Tokyo are eliminated the city
will be destroyed by earthquakes and this will lead to global apocalypse.
How does a story about apocalypse relate to powerlessness? As modern society becomes
more dependant on the faceless power of industry or increasingly unapproachable government,
the people feel they do not have control over their own fate; destroying the society in fiction
expresses power over it. Susan Napier, in The Fantastic in Modern Japanese Literature, explains
that the origins of Japanese dystopian literature happened concurrently with the modernization of
the Meiji period which led to "the equation of modern industrial life with an anti-human world"
(118). Through the end of Meiji and into Taisho, Japan became more dependant on capitalism
and industrialization to survive. She writes, "Taisho was a time when the roseate dreams of Meiji
were beginning to show a nightmare side with the rise of unemployment, the spread of the factory
. . . . It is against this 'consensus reality' which dystopian literature was reacting" (118).
The Tokyo of X is not initially dystopian. However, as the series progresses it becomes
more and more so. The manga is filled not only with powerful images of major Tokyo landmarks
going down in flames but also with the destruction of the lives of characters who try to oppose
the chaos around them. As each kekkai falls, the city and its people are thrown further into
upheaval and the relationships between characters spiral ever downwards, mirroring the
destruction around them.
The kekkai are major symbols of urbanization; destruction of the permanent kekkai and
destruction of civilization are closely linked. As of volume seventeen the known kekkai are the
Sunshine 60 building, Nakano Sun Plaza, the Shinjuku high-rises, the Yamanote Rail Line,
Rainbow Bridge, Ginza, and Tokyo Tower. All are major landmarks in Tokyo but none of the
targets are natural, such as mountains or rivers. By attacking the kekkai the Dragons of Earth are
attacking civilization itself.
In many Japanese dystopia, "Nature is almost totally absent, a particularly noticeable
phenomenon when one considers the importance of nature as a Utopian refuge in much of 20th
century Japanese literature" (Napier The Fantastic 184). While there is natural imagery in X,
especially cherry blossoms, feathers, and birds, the main focus is the city itself, specifically, its
downfall. X is awash in Judeo-Christian religious symbolism and CLAMP has chosen Tokyo to
represent Babylon, the ultimate in corrupt metropolises (Rev. 18). This theme is introduced in an
earlier series in the X continuity, Tokyo Babylon. Thus, as a modern-day Babylon, Tokyo is
slated for destruction.
In his article on Japanese urban thought Henry Smith states that during the Meiji period
"what all these cities shared was a mechanical view of the city, the city as a challenge to be met
with modern technology" (55). In X, the mechanical city has become so powerful that nature is
stifled and is forced to lash out in retaliation. When the Dragons of Earth attempt to destroy the
kekkai they retaliate against the corruption embodied by the city. The Dragons of Earth are not
exempt from nature's revenge, they are themselves alienated from normal life or are, quite
literally, freaks of nature. They are out to destroy themselves along with the rest of humanity.
Two Dragons of Earth, Satsuki and Nataku, are powerful examples of modern technology
warping the human into something alien in which humanity only vaguely remains. The being is
utterly alienated from the natural world. Both characters are excellent examples that in dystopian
literature "personality is 'crippled' in the Japanese confrontation between culture and technology"
(Napier The Fantastic 188). Once a normal schoolgirl, Satsuki became bored with life and now
exists symbiotically within her massive computer, the Beast. When she joins with it, wires plug
into her body and she becomes just another piece of computer hardware, merging her
consciousness with the Beast (fig. 1). Possessing the mind of a young girl, Nataku is a sexless
genetically engineered being (fig. 2). Created from the DNA of a five-year-old girl and that of her
father, Nataku is capable of killing with incredible force. Satsuki and Nataku can destroy without
conscience; their power to affect the world comes from their utter alienation from it. Ultimately,
they have become prisoners of their own alienation, unable to change even if they want to.
Although both the Dragons of Heaven and the Dragons of Earth are trapped in their
foreordained destinies, the Dragons of Earth alone are able to take action against society by
attempting to destroy it. Their ultimate goal is the destruction of all humanity so the earth can
begin again, free of the poison of human development, allowing a new society to form that will
not be as entrenched and immobile as the old.
The most prominent theme in X is that of a set destiny; as the tagline of the series states,
"Their destiny was foreordained" (CLAMP, X 1: 2). Each of the fourteen major characters
possess magical or psychic abilities but are powerless to significantly affect the roles they play in
the future of humanity. Only one character appears to be offered a choice about his future, the
main character, Shirou Kamui. He must choose between joining the Dragons of Heaven or the
Dragons of Earth but once he makes his choice the path for the rest of humanity is inexorably
decided. This once again reflects the powerlessness of the individual against the monolith of
modern society; the other characters are powerless to determine their own futures or to alter their
destiny.
The most striking example of a character unable to affect his destiny is Kamui's best
friend, Fuuma. As soon as Kamui makes his choice to join the Dragons of Heaven, Fuuma
becomes Dark Kamui, leader of the Dragons of Earth. He retains the same body but his mind and
personality change to that of a killer. This change comes about because he is destined to be
Kamui's opposite, for good or evil. He is entirely unable to control his own fate. Just after he has
become Dark Kamui, Fuuma says:
I was born to become the Accompanying Star. The other "Kamui" that will fill the empty
seat when "Kamui" chooses one Dragon from either Heaven or Earth. You chose to be a
Dragon of Heaven. I will become a Dragon of Earth, and kill the Seven Seals -- the
Dragons of Heaven. (8: 158)
Yet even the meaning of Kamui's choice is unclear to him. The name "Kamui" has two
interpretations. It means either ". . . one who represents the majesty of the Gods [or] . . . one
who hunts the majesty of the Gods" (9: 2). By choosing one side or the other he has chosen to
become the representation of one of the two meanings. However, he does not know which choice
-- to destroy humanity or to protect it -- represents the "majesty of the Gods." Thus, by
choosing to protect humanity has he chosen good or evil? The overwhelming confusion
surrounding his choice transforms the choice from a seemingly life-changing decision to a minor
plot twist. Kamui is powerless to effect his destiny or to fully comprehend the ramifications of his
choice.
Two of the most powerful characters exist almost entirely in illusion. Kakyou and Hinoto
appear to have power to change fate but are unwilling or incapable of doing so. The dream gazer
Kakyou lives in a permanent coma, existing only in the dreamscape and kept alive by life-support
equipment. He is the most skilled in seeing the future and manipulating the dreamscape. He
knows with certainty what the outcome of the final battle with be. However, he refuses to take
any action to change events,
Kotori: Tragedy....? You know what is going to happen now?
Kakyou: ....I know. But...I can't stop it from happening. (8: 114-115)
Kakyou's attitude of defeated resignation raises the question, why is he unwilling to take
action against a tragedy which he knows with absolute certainty will occur? Kakyou's personal
history plays some role in his decision (15: 170-178) but he also sees the impending destruction as
a force too powerful to be stopped.
Hinoto, leader of the Dragons of Heaven, is blind, deaf, mute, and unable to walk. She
lives in a secret room under the Diet (parliament) building. By day she foresees the future and
advises the leaders of the Japanese government. By night, she is the mastermind of the Dragons
of Heaven. She spends most of her existence in the dreamscape and can only communicate
through telepathy. Both of these characters appear to have potentially great power but because of
Kakyou's unwillingness to act and the futility of Hinoto's actions they are both, in reality, almost
entirely powerless against the forces around them.
Hinoto and Kakyou are ultimately powerless. The dreamscape is a major symbol of the
futility of human actions. It is a shared unconsciousness that can be tapped by dream gazers and
the most powerful dream gazers can draw others into it. The dreamscape can be many things,
from the representation of a person's mind to a vision of the future but any actions taken in the
dreamscape are futile; it is merely a shared illusion.
The Dragons of Heaven and Dragons of Earth are fighting over the fate of humanity, but
there are very few humans in X. Where is the Everyman the Dragons of Heaven are striving to
defend? In the beginning of the series Kamui's childhood friends, the brother and sister Kotori
and Fuuma, represent the average person. They have neither magical powers nor knowledge of
the impending end on the world. Kamui is fighting to make the world a safer place for them, and
by extension, the everyday person (fig. 3). However, by the time of her death in the eighth
volume at the hands of her brother, Kotori has become an angelic symbol of all that is good while
Fuuma becomes a representation of cold-hearted evil, manifesting psychic powers and killing
mercilessly (X 8). This change in the characters effectively erases the innocent bystander as a
visible motivation. Just as the Dragons of Earth are disconnected from the natural world, the
Dragons of Heaven are disconnected from the normal people -- businessmen, schoolchildren,
families -- they are fighting to protect.
Among both the groups there are characters who approach being "normal." However,
Yuuto of the Dragons of Earth and Seiichirou Aoki and Karen of the Dragons of Heaven receive
some of the least exposure in the entire series. Yuuto works as a public servant registering baby
names. His motives for destroying all of humanity are unclear; he is often in the background with
a witty comment but does not receive much focus. Karen works in a "soapland" (a bathhouse
where men are given sexual favors by the female attendants) and Seiichirou is an editor at
Kadokawa Shoten (named after one of CLAMP's real-life editors).
All three exist in the real world, as opposed to the dream gazers: Kakyou and Hinoto, the
outcasts: Satsuki and Nataku, or the rest of the Dragons of Heaven, most of whom devote all
their energies to the final battle. As a prostitute, Karen belongs to typically marginalized group in
society, yet she is a champion of the city and fights for the sake of the city she loves. Seiichirou
fights to preserve the world for his wife and daughter who live on the outskirts of Tokyo. Of all
the characters in X, these two have perhaps the most clear-cut motives. Yet they are also among
the least visible characters. Yuuto, Seiichirou, and Karen are older than most of the other
characters, the majority of whom are in high school. Because the three are older and more
grounded in the real world they have potential to become mentors to the younger characters.
However, they play minor roles and as a result they do not act as a stabilizing influence. The
authors, by not giving the younger members authority figures, continue the chaotic uncertainty
which perpetuates their powerlessness.
Another explanation is that X's purpose is not to mirror modern Japan but rather to
exaggerate it, highlighting the distorted consequences of industrialization on the individual. Thus,
Satsuki isn't just a girl who likes computers a little too much, she is absorbed by and becomes an
almost-computer. Kakyou isn't a downtrodden businessman trapped by his job; he's a dream
gazer trapped in his own mind. Why the exaggeration? By focusing on the more fantastic
characters, X is able to take situations to the extreme. Since X reflects the needs and desires of its
audience, CLAMP is able to bring to light problems that exist, to a lesser degree, in the real
world.
X isn't just a "let's destroy Tokyo" manga reveling in explosions and wanton destruction.
At first glance the characters are superhuman, locked in a death struggle, and blithely destroying
symbols of civilization. However, upon closer examination the super-humans of X are no more
able to overcome their powerlessness then the Everyman of modern Japan. Just as the
businessman is bound in service to the company, so are the characters of X tied to their relentless
destiny. X does not stop at imitating society; by its exaggeration it serves as a catharsis.
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[cml@ruri.swb.de]. 10 Oct, 2001.
Clammer, John. "Consuming Bodies: Constructing and Representing the Female Body in
Contemporary Japanese Print Media." Moeran, 197-219.
CLAMP [Igarashi Satsuki, Ohkawa Nanase, Nekoi Mick, and Apapa Mokona]. Trans. CML-CWTT (1). Tokyo Babylon. 7 vols. Tokyo: Shinshokan, 1991-1994.
--. Seiden RG Veda. 10 vols. Tokyo: Wings Comics, 1990-1996.
--. X. Trans. CML-CWTT. 17 vols. to date. Tokyo: Asuka Comics, 1992- .
Craig, Timothy, ed. Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. New York: East
Gate, 2000.
Fujimoto, Yukari. Trans. Julianne Dvorak. "A Life-Sized Mirror: Women's Self-Representation
in Girls' Comics." Lila-Asia Pacific Women's Studies Journal (3). N.p.: Institute of
Women's Studies, 1994. 37-43.
Izawa, Eric. "The Romantic, Passionate Japanese in Anime: A Look at the Hidden Japanese
Soul." Craig, 138-153.
Kinsella, Sharon. "Cuties in Japan." Moeran, 220-54.
MacWilliams, Mark Wheeler. "Japanese Comics and Religion, Osamu Tezuka's Story of the
Buddha." Craig, 109-137.
Moeran, Brian and Lise Skov, ed. Women, Media and Consumption in Japan. Honolulu:
University of Hawai'i Press, 1995.
Napier, Susan J. The Fantastic in Modern Japanese Literature. London: Routledge, 1996.
--. Panic Sites: The Japanese Imagination of Disaster from Godzilla to Akira. Journal of
Japanese Studies, Vol. 19, No. 2. (Summer, 1993), pp. 327-351. JSTOR.
The New Student Bible, New International Version. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House,
1992.
Smith, Henry D. Tokyo as an Idea: An Exploration of Japanese Urban Thought until 1945.
Journal of Japanese Studies, Vol. 4, No. 1. (Winter, 1978), pp. 45-80. JSTOR.
Thorn, Matt. "Shoujo Manga: Comics by Women for Girls of All Ages (Part 1 of 2)." What Are
Shoujo Manga? http://www.matt-thorn.com/what_are_shoujo_manga.html (14 Oct,
2001).
1. The CML-CWTT (CLAMP Mailing List CLAMP Works Translation Team) is a non-profit amateur
translation project run by the CLAMP Mailing List to translate CLAMP's comics into script form. All quotations
from X are from the CML-CWTT scripts. The CML website can be accessed at http://www.west.net/~hikaru
©2001, by Julia Holz.